Carnot efficiency - Revision history

Jmdonev at 05:54, 22 July 2020

2020-07-22T05:54:24Z

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	* <math>W</math> is the useful work achieved by the system		* <math>W</math> is the useful work achieved by the system

	Therefore the Carnot efficiency gives a maximum attainable amount of work from any heat engine. It can be seen from Equation 1 that by either raising <math>T_H</math> or lowering <math>T_L</math> the efficiency can be increased. Ideally one would therefore want to make the cold sink temperature equal to [[absolute zero]], but this is known to be impossible. In reality, the cold sink is the Earth's environment. This means that the cold sink is at a temperature of around 280-300 [[Kelvin]], and the hot sources are from burning fuels burn at a temperature of approximately 1100 Kelvin (although research always tries to drive that temperature higher). These temperatures give a Carnot efficiency value of <math>\eta_{max} \approx 0.70</math> or so.<ref>From the U.S. Department of Energy https://www.energy.gov/fe/how-gas-turbine-power-plants-work accessed July 21, 2020.</ref>		Therefore the Carnot efficiency gives a maximum attainable amount of work from any heat engine. It can be seen from Equation 1 that by either raising <math>T_H</math> or lowering <math>T_L</math> the efficiency can be increased. Ideally one would therefore want to make the cold sink temperature equal to [[absolute zero]], but this is known to be impossible. In reality, the cold sink is the Earth's environment. This means that the cold sink is at a temperature of around 280-300 [[Kelvin]], and the hot sources are from burning fuels burn at a temperature of approximately 1100 Kelvin (although research always tries to drive that temperature higher). These temperatures give a Carnot efficiency value of <math>\eta_{max} \approx 70\%</math> or so.<ref>From the U.S. Department of Energy https://www.energy.gov/fe/how-gas-turbine-power-plants-work accessed July 21, 2020.</ref>

	==Carnot Engine==		==Carnot Engine==

Jmdonev at 05:53, 22 July 2020

2020-07-22T05:53:57Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 05:53, 22 July 2020
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	* <math>W</math> is the useful work achieved by the system		* <math>W</math> is the useful work achieved by the system

	Therefore the Carnot efficiency gives a maximum attainable amount of work from any heat engine. It can be seen from Equation 1 that by either raising <math>T_H</math> or lowering <math>T_L</math> the efficiency can be increased. Ideally one would therefore want to make the cold sink temperature equal to [[absolute zero]], but this is known to be impossible. In reality, the cold sink is the Earth's environment. This means that the cold sink is at a temperature of around 280-300 [[Kelvin]], and the hot sources are from burning fuels burn at a temperature of approximately 1100 Kelvin (although research always tries to drive that temperature higher). These temperatures give a Carnot efficiency value of <math>\eta_{max}=\approx 0.70</math> or so.<ref>From the U.S. Department of Energy https://www.energy.gov/fe/how-gas-turbine-power-plants-work accessed July 21, 2020.</ref>		Therefore the Carnot efficiency gives a maximum attainable amount of work from any heat engine. It can be seen from Equation 1 that by either raising <math>T_H</math> or lowering <math>T_L</math> the efficiency can be increased. Ideally one would therefore want to make the cold sink temperature equal to [[absolute zero]], but this is known to be impossible. In reality, the cold sink is the Earth's environment. This means that the cold sink is at a temperature of around 280-300 [[Kelvin]], and the hot sources are from burning fuels burn at a temperature of approximately 1100 Kelvin (although research always tries to drive that temperature higher). These temperatures give a Carnot efficiency value of <math>\eta_{max} \approx 0.70</math> or so.<ref>From the U.S. Department of Energy https://www.energy.gov/fe/how-gas-turbine-power-plants-work accessed July 21, 2020.</ref>

	==Carnot Engine==		==Carnot Engine==

Jmdonev at 05:53, 22 July 2020

2020-07-22T05:53:39Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 05:53, 22 July 2020
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	* <math>W</math> is the useful work achieved by the system		* <math>W</math> is the useful work achieved by the system

	Therefore the Carnot efficiency gives a maximum attainable amount of work from any heat engine. It can be seen from Equation 1 that by either raising <math>T_H</math> or lowering <math>T_L</math> the efficiency can be increased. Ideally one would therefore want to make the cold sink temperature equal to [[absolute zero]], but this is known to be impossible. In reality, the cold sink is the Earth's environment. This means that the cold sink is at a temperature of around 280-300 [[Kelvin]], and the hot sources are from burning fuels burn at a temperature of approximately 1100 Kelvin (although research always tries to drive that temperature higher). These temperatures give a Carnot efficiency value of <math>\eta_{max}=~0.72</math>.<ref>From the U.S. Department of Energy https://www.energy.gov/fe/how-gas-turbine-power-plants-work accessed July 21, 2020.</ref>		Therefore the Carnot efficiency gives a maximum attainable amount of work from any heat engine. It can be seen from Equation 1 that by either raising <math>T_H</math> or lowering <math>T_L</math> the efficiency can be increased. Ideally one would therefore want to make the cold sink temperature equal to [[absolute zero]], but this is known to be impossible. In reality, the cold sink is the Earth's environment. This means that the cold sink is at a temperature of around 280-300 [[Kelvin]], and the hot sources are from burning fuels burn at a temperature of approximately 1100 Kelvin (although research always tries to drive that temperature higher). These temperatures give a Carnot efficiency value of <math>\eta_{max}=\approx 0.70</math> or so.<ref>From the U.S. Department of Energy https://www.energy.gov/fe/how-gas-turbine-power-plants-work accessed July 21, 2020.</ref>

	==Carnot Engine==		==Carnot Engine==

Jmdonev at 05:53, 22 July 2020

2020-07-22T05:53:03Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 05:53, 22 July 2020
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	* <math>W</math> is the useful work achieved by the system		* <math>W</math> is the useful work achieved by the system

	Therefore the Carnot efficiency gives a maximum attainable amount of work from any heat engine. It can be seen from Equation 1 that by either raising <math>T_H</math> or lowering <math>T_L</math> the efficiency can be increased. Ideally one would therefore want to make the cold sink temperature equal to [[absolute zero]], but this is known to be an impossible ~~feat~~. In reality, the cold sink is the Earth's environment. This means that the cold sink is at a temperature of around ~~310~~ [[Kelvin]], and the hot sources ~~we can achieve in heat engines~~ from burning fuels burn at a temperature of approximately ~~650~~ Kelvin. These temperatures give a Carnot efficiency value of <math>\eta_{max}=0.52</math>.<ref ~~name=wolf~~>R. ~~Wolfson, "Entropy, Heat Engines, and the Second Law~~ of ~~Thermodynamics" in ''~~Energy~~, Environment, and Climate'', 2nd ed., New York, NY~~: W.W. ~~Norton & Company~~, ~~2012, ch~~. ~~4, sec. 7, pp. 81-84~~</ref>		Therefore the Carnot efficiency gives a maximum attainable amount of work from any heat engine. It can be seen from Equation 1 that by either raising <math>T_H</math> or lowering <math>T_L</math> the efficiency can be increased. Ideally one would therefore want to make the cold sink temperature equal to [[absolute zero]], but this is known to be impossible. In reality, the cold sink is the Earth's environment. This means that the cold sink is at a temperature of around 280-300 [[Kelvin]], and the hot sources are from burning fuels burn at a temperature of approximately 1100 Kelvin (although research always tries to drive that temperature higher). These temperatures give a Carnot efficiency value of <math>\eta_{max}=~0.72</math>.<ref>From the U.S. Department of Energy https://www.energy.gov/fe/how-gas-turbine-power-plants-work accessed July 21, 2020.</ref>

	==Carnot Engine==		==Carnot Engine==

Jmdonev: 1 revision imported

2018-05-18T22:53:13Z

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Jmdonev at 22:45, 11 May 2018

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	[[File:Carnot.png\|330px\|thumbnail\|Figure 1: A hot source provides the energy needed to produce work in a thermodynamic process. The Carnot efficiency depends only on the temperature of the hot source and the cold sink.<ref>Wikimedia Commons [Online], Available: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a2/Heat_engine.png</ref>]]		[[File:Carnot.png\|330px\|thumbnail\|Figure 1: A hot source provides the energy needed to produce work in a thermodynamic process. The Carnot efficiency depends only on the temperature of the hot source and the cold sink.<ref>Wikimedia Commons [Online], Available: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a2/Heat_engine.png</ref>]]

	<onlyinclude>'''Carnot efficiency''' describes the maximum [[thermal efficiency]] that a [[heat engine]] can achieve as permitted by the [[Second law of thermodynamics\|Second Law of Thermodynamics]]. The law was derived by Sadi Carnot in 1824.</onlyinclude> Carnot pondered the idea of maximum efficiency in a heat engine~~: Can~~ the efficiency approach 100%, or is there an upper limit that cannot be exceeded?<ref name=Knight>R. D. Knight, "The Limits of Efficiency" in ''Physics for Scientists and Engineers: A Strategic Approach,'' 3nd ed. San Francisco, U.S.A.: Pearson Addison-Wesley, 2008, ch.19, sec.5, pp. 540-542</ref> The answer turned out to be that there is a maximum value, and Carnot developed an ideal engine that would theoretically give this efficiency, known as the [[#Carnot Engine\|Carnot engine]]. The maximum efficiency, known as the Carnot efficiency <m>\eta_{max}</m>, is dependent only on the temperatures of the hot source and the cold sink <m>T_H</m> and <m>T_L</m>, as shown in Figure 1, and is given by the equation<ref>Hyperphysics, ''Carnot Cycle'' [Online], Available: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/carnot.html</ref>		<onlyinclude>'''Carnot efficiency''' describes the maximum [[thermal efficiency]] that a [[heat engine]] can achieve as permitted by the [[Second law of thermodynamics\|Second Law of Thermodynamics]]. The law was derived by Sadi Carnot in 1824.</onlyinclude> Carnot pondered the idea of maximum efficiency in a heat engine questioning whether or not ''the efficiency of a heat engine can approach 100%, or is there an upper limit that cannot be exceeded?'' <ref name=Knight>R. D. Knight, "The Limits of Efficiency" in ''Physics for Scientists and Engineers: A Strategic Approach,'' 3nd ed. San Francisco, U.S.A.: Pearson Addison-Wesley, 2008, ch.19, sec.5, pp. 540-542</ref> The answer turned out to be that there is a maximum value, and Carnot developed an ideal engine that would theoretically give this efficiency, known as the [[#Carnot Engine\|Carnot engine]]. The maximum efficiency, known as the Carnot efficiency <math>\eta_{max}</math>, is dependent only on the temperatures of the hot source and the cold sink <math>T_H</math> and <math>T_L</math>, as shown in Figure 1, and is given by the equation below<ref>Hyperphysics, ''Carnot Cycle'' [Online], Available: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/carnot.html</ref>

	(1)<center><m>\eta_{max}=1-\frac{T_L}{T_H}</m></center>		(1)<center><math>\eta_{max}=1-\frac{T_L}{T_H}</math></center>

	The Second Law requires that [[waste heat]] be produced in a thermodynamic process where [[work]] is done by a [[heat]] source. Such a process is given by the equation		The Second Law requires that [[waste heat]] be produced in a thermodynamic process where [[work]] is done by a [[heat]] source. Such a process is given by the equation

	(2)<center><m>Q_H=Q_L+W</m></center>		(2)<center><math>Q_H=Q_L+W</math></center>

	With a thermal efficiency of		With a thermal efficiency of

	(3)<center><m>\eta=\frac{W}{Q_H}</m></center>		(3)<center><math>\eta=\frac{W}{Q_H}</math></center>

	Where:		Where:

	* <m>Q_H</m> is the heat supplied to the system from a fuel		* <math>Q_H</math> is the heat supplied to the system from a fuel
	* <m>Q_L</m> is the heat given off by the system to the cold sink known as waste heat		* <math>Q_L</math> is the heat given off by the system to the cold sink known as waste heat
	* <m>W</m> is the useful work achieved by the system		* <math>W</math> is the useful work achieved by the system

	Therefore the Carnot efficiency gives a maximum attainable amount of work from any heat engine. It can be seen from Equation 1 that by either raising <m>T_H</m> or lowering <m>T_L</m> the efficiency can be increased. Ideally one would therefore want to make the cold sink temperature equal to [[absolute zero]], but this is known to be an impossible feat. In reality, the cold sink is the Earth's environment. This means that the cold sink is at a temperature of around 310 [[Kelvin]], and the hot sources we can achieve in heat engines from burning fuels burn at a temperature of approximately 650 Kelvin. These temperatures give a Carnot efficiency value of <m>\eta_{max}=0.52</m>.<ref name=wolf>R. Wolfson, "Entropy, Heat Engines, and the Second Law of Thermodynamics" in ''Energy, Environment, and Climate'', 2nd ed., New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012, ch. 4, sec. 7, pp. 81-84</ref>		Therefore the Carnot efficiency gives a maximum attainable amount of work from any heat engine. It can be seen from Equation 1 that by either raising <math>T_H</math> or lowering <math>T_L</math> the efficiency can be increased. Ideally one would therefore want to make the cold sink temperature equal to [[absolute zero]], but this is known to be an impossible feat. In reality, the cold sink is the Earth's environment. This means that the cold sink is at a temperature of around 310 [[Kelvin]], and the hot sources we can achieve in heat engines from burning fuels burn at a temperature of approximately 650 Kelvin. These temperatures give a Carnot efficiency value of <math>\eta_{max}=0.52</math>.<ref name=wolf>R. Wolfson, "Entropy, Heat Engines, and the Second Law of Thermodynamics" in ''Energy, Environment, and Climate'', 2nd ed., New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012, ch. 4, sec. 7, pp. 81-84</ref>

	==Carnot Engine==		==Carnot Engine==
	A Carnot engine is an idealized engine, using processes that have reversible mechanical and thermal interactions. This means that the engine can go through its motions and return to its initial state without an increase in [[entropy]] (without energy loss). For the engine to be able to return to its initial state ''without'' increasing the entropy, the engine must be in [[thermal equilibrium]] throughout its cycle. The conditions for such an engine to exist are:<ref name=Knight/>		A Carnot engine is an idealized engine, using processes that have reversible mechanical and thermal interactions. This means that the engine can go through its motions and return to its initial state without an increase in [[entropy]] (without energy loss). For the engine to be able to return to its initial state ''without'' increasing the entropy, the engine must be in [[thermal equilibrium]] throughout its cycle. The conditions for such an engine to exist are:<ref name=Knight/>

	* '''Mechanical interactions''': no energy is lost in the form of [[friction]], therefore there is no [[heat transfer]] during these mechanical processes (<m>Q=0</m>), known as an [[adiabatic]] process.		* '''Mechanical interactions''': no energy is lost in the form of [[friction]], therefore there is no [[heat transfer]] during these mechanical processes (<math>Q=0</math>), known as an [[adiabatic]] process.

	* '''Thermal interactions''': the heat transfer is ''infinitely slow'' (known as a quasi-static). This means that the [[temperature]] difference between the system and the input/output heat is very nearly the same, ~~and therefore~~ the heat transfer ~~will~~ take an infinite amount of time. These exchanges must be done by keeping the internal temperature of the system constant, known as an [[isothermal]] process.		* '''Thermal interactions''': the heat transfer is ''infinitely slow'' (known as a ''quasi-static''). This means that the [[temperature]] difference between the system and the input/output heat is very nearly the same, causing the heat transfer to take place over an infinite amount of time. These exchanges must be done by keeping the internal temperature of the system constant, known as an [[isothermal]] process.

	An engine that only possesses these properties is known as a Carnot engine, which is a "perfectly reversible engine", and exhibits the maximum thermal efficiency (<m>\eta_{max}</m>) and, if operated as a refrigerator, [[coefficient of performance]] (<m>K_{max}</m>). Although such an engine would maximize efficiency, in terms of effectiveness it is terribly impractical since its idealized processes take so much time to output a significant amount of work. As Schroeder puts it, "don’t bother installing a Carnot engine in your car; while it would increase your gas mileage, you’d be passed by pedestrians".<ref>McMaster Physics and Astronomy, ''Carnot Cycle'' [Online], Available: http://www.physics.mcmaster.ca/~morozov/3K03/Lecture9.pdf</ref>		An engine that only possesses these properties is known as a Carnot engine, which is a "perfectly reversible engine", and exhibits the maximum thermal efficiency (<math>\eta_{max}</math>) and, if operated as a [[refrigerator]], [[coefficient of performance]] (<math>K_{max}</math>). Although such an engine would maximize efficiency, in terms of effectiveness it is terribly impractical since its idealized processes take so much time to output a significant amount of work. As Schroeder puts it, "don’t bother installing a Carnot engine in your car; while it would increase your gas mileage, you’d be passed by pedestrians".<ref>McMaster Physics and Astronomy, ''Carnot Cycle'' [Online], Available: http://www.physics.mcmaster.ca/~morozov/3K03/Lecture9.pdf</ref>

	To learn more about the Carnot engine, visit [https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/carnot.html NASA] or [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/carnot.html hyperphysics].		To learn more about the Carnot engine, visit [https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/carnot.html NASA] or [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/carnot.html hyperphysics].

J.williams: 1 revision imported

2015-09-18T16:52:19Z

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Jhanania at 01:58, 14 September 2015

2015-09-14T01:58:23Z

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	[[File:Carnot.png\|330px\|thumbnail\|Figure 1: A hot source provides the energy needed to produce work in a thermodynamic process. The Carnot efficiency depends only on the temperature of the hot source and the cold sink.<ref>Wikimedia Commons [Online], Available: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a2/Heat_engine.png</ref>]]		[[File:Carnot.png\|330px\|thumbnail\|Figure 1: A hot source provides the energy needed to produce work in a thermodynamic process. The Carnot efficiency depends only on the temperature of the hot source and the cold sink.<ref>Wikimedia Commons [Online], Available: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a2/Heat_engine.png</ref>]]

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	A Carnot engine is an idealized engine, using processes that have reversible mechanical and thermal interactions. This means that the engine can go through its motions and return to its initial state without an increase in [[entropy]] (without energy loss). For the engine to be able to return to its initial state ''without'' increasing the entropy, the engine must be in [[thermal equilibrium]] throughout its cycle. The conditions for such an engine to exist are:<ref name=Knight/>		A Carnot engine is an idealized engine, using processes that have reversible mechanical and thermal interactions. This means that the engine can go through its motions and return to its initial state without an increase in [[entropy]] (without energy loss). For the engine to be able to return to its initial state ''without'' increasing the entropy, the engine must be in [[thermal equilibrium]] throughout its cycle. The conditions for such an engine to exist are:<ref name=Knight/>

	* '''Mechanical interactions''': no energy is lost in the form of [[friction]], therefore there is no [[heat transfer]] during these mechanical processes (<m>Q=0</m>).		* '''Mechanical interactions''': no energy is lost in the form of [[friction]], therefore there is no [[heat transfer]] during these mechanical processes (<m>Q=0</m>), known as an [[adiabatic]] process.

	* '''Thermal interactions''': the heat transfer is ''infinitely slow'' (known as a quasi-static). This means that the [[temperature]] difference between the system and the input/output heat is very nearly the same, and therefore the heat transfer will take an infinite amount of time. These exchanges must be done by keeping the internal temperature of the system constant, known as an [[~~isotherm~~]]al process.		* '''Thermal interactions''': the heat transfer is ''infinitely slow'' (known as a quasi-static). This means that the [[temperature]] difference between the system and the input/output heat is very nearly the same, and therefore the heat transfer will take an infinite amount of time. These exchanges must be done by keeping the internal temperature of the system constant, known as an [[isothermal]] process.

	An engine that only possesses these properties is known as a Carnot engine, which is a "perfectly reversible engine", and exhibits the maximum thermal efficiency (<m>\eta_{max}</m>) and, if operated as a refrigerator, [[coefficient of performance]] (<m>K_{max}</m>). Although such an engine would maximize efficiency, in terms of effectiveness it is terribly impractical since its idealized processes take so much time to output a significant amount of work. As Schroeder puts it, "don’t bother installing a Carnot engine in your car; while it would increase your gas mileage, you’d be passed by pedestrians".<ref>McMaster Physics and Astronomy, ''Carnot Cycle'' [Online], Available: http://www.physics.mcmaster.ca/~morozov/3K03/Lecture9.pdf</ref>		An engine that only possesses these properties is known as a Carnot engine, which is a "perfectly reversible engine", and exhibits the maximum thermal efficiency (<m>\eta_{max}</m>) and, if operated as a refrigerator, [[coefficient of performance]] (<m>K_{max}</m>). Although such an engine would maximize efficiency, in terms of effectiveness it is terribly impractical since its idealized processes take so much time to output a significant amount of work. As Schroeder puts it, "don’t bother installing a Carnot engine in your car; while it would increase your gas mileage, you’d be passed by pedestrians".<ref>McMaster Physics and Astronomy, ''Carnot Cycle'' [Online], Available: http://www.physics.mcmaster.ca/~morozov/3K03/Lecture9.pdf</ref>

J.williams: 1 revision imported

2015-08-26T21:30:50Z

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J.williams at 16:49, 12 August 2015

2015-08-12T16:49:12Z

New page

[[category:371 topics]]
[[category:301 topics]]
[[Category:Done 2015-06-11]]
[[File:Carnot.png|330px|thumbnail|Figure 1: A hot source provides the energy needed to produce work in a thermodynamic process. The Carnot efficiency depends only on the temperature of the hot source and the cold sink.<ref>Wikimedia Commons [Online], Available: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a2/Heat_engine.png</ref>]]

<onlyinclude>'''Carnot efficiency''' describes the maximum [[thermal efficiency]] that a [[heat engine]] can achieve as permitted by the [[Second law of thermodynamics|Second Law of Thermodynamics]]. The law was derived by Sadi Carnot in 1824.</onlyinclude> Carnot pondered the idea of maximum efficiency in a heat engine: Can the efficiency approach 100%, or is there an upper limit that cannot be exceeded?<ref name=Knight>R. D. Knight, "The Limits of Efficiency" in ''Physics for Scientists and Engineers: A Strategic Approach,'' 3nd ed. San Francisco, U.S.A.: Pearson Addison-Wesley, 2008, ch.19, sec.5, pp. 540-542</ref> The answer turned out to be that there is a maximum value, and Carnot developed an ideal engine that would theoretically give this efficiency, known as the [[#Carnot Engine|Carnot engine]]. The maximum efficiency, known as the Carnot efficiency <m>\eta_{max}</m>, is dependent only on the temperatures of the hot source and the cold sink <m>T_H</m> and <m>T_L</m>, as shown in Figure 1, and is given by the equation<ref>Hyperphysics, ''Carnot Cycle'' [Online], Available: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/carnot.html</ref>

(1)<center><m>\eta_{max}=1-\frac{T_L}{T_H}</m></center>

The Second Law requires that [[waste heat]] be produced in a thermodynamic process where [[work]] is done by a [[heat]] source. Such a process is given by the equation

(2)<center><m>Q_H=Q_L+W</m></center>

With a thermal efficiency of

(3)<center><m>\eta=\frac{W}{Q_H}</m></center>

Where:

* <m>Q_H</m> is the heat supplied to the system from a fuel
* <m>Q_L</m> is the heat given off by the system to the cold sink known as waste heat
* <m>W</m> is the useful work achieved by the system

Therefore the Carnot efficiency gives a maximum attainable amount of work from any heat engine. It can be seen from Equation 1 that by either raising <m>T_H</m> or lowering <m>T_L</m> the efficiency can be increased. Ideally one would therefore want to make the cold sink temperature equal to [[absolute zero]], but this is known to be an impossible feat. In reality, the cold sink is the Earth's environment. This means that the cold sink is at a temperature of around 310 [[Kelvin]], and the hot sources we can achieve in heat engines from burning fuels burn at a temperature of approximately 650 Kelvin. These temperatures give a Carnot efficiency value of <m>\eta_{max}=0.52</m>.<ref name=wolf>R. Wolfson, "Entropy, Heat Engines, and the Second Law of Thermodynamics" in ''Energy, Environment, and Climate'', 2nd ed., New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012, ch. 4, sec. 7, pp. 81-84</ref>

==Carnot Engine==
A Carnot engine is an idealized engine, using processes that have reversible mechanical and thermal interactions. This means that the engine can go through its motions and return to its initial state without an increase in [[entropy]] (without energy loss). For the engine to be able to return to its initial state ''without'' increasing the entropy, the engine must be in [[thermal equilibrium]] throughout its cycle. The conditions for such an engine to exist are:<ref name=Knight/>

* '''Mechanical interactions''': no energy is lost in the form of [[friction]], therefore there is no [[heat transfer]] during these mechanical processes (<m>Q=0</m>).

* '''Thermal interactions''': the heat transfer is ''infinitely slow'' (known as a quasi-static). This means that the [[temperature]] difference between the system and the input/output heat is very nearly the same, and therefore the heat transfer will take an infinite amount of time. These exchanges must be done by keeping the internal temperature of the system constant, known as an [[isotherm]]al process.

An engine that only possesses these properties is known as a Carnot engine, which is a "perfectly reversible engine", and exhibits the maximum thermal efficiency (<m>\eta_{max}</m>) and, if operated as a refrigerator, [[coefficient of performance]] (<m>K_{max}</m>). Although such an engine would maximize efficiency, in terms of effectiveness it is terribly impractical since its idealized processes take so much time to output a significant amount of work. As Schroeder puts it, "don’t bother installing a Carnot engine in your car; while it would increase your gas mileage, you’d be passed by pedestrians".<ref>McMaster Physics and Astronomy, ''Carnot Cycle'' [Online], Available: http://www.physics.mcmaster.ca/~morozov/3K03/Lecture9.pdf</ref>

To learn more about the Carnot engine, visit [https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/carnot.html NASA] or [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/carnot.html hyperphysics].

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Uploaded]]