Linear no-threshold model - Revision history

Jmdonev: 1 revision imported

2021-09-27T00:03:00Z

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energy>Ethan.boechler at 17:26, 18 June 2021

2021-06-18T17:26:05Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:26, 18 June 2021
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	[[Category:Done 2020-01-31]]		[[Category:Done 2020-01-31]]
			[[Category:Translated to French]]
			[[fr:Modèle linéaire sans seuil]]
	[[File:LinearNoThreshold.png\|thumb\|400px\|right\|upright=2.4\|alt=Figure 1:The LNT Model \|Figure 1: The LNT Model (red line) assumes a straight line relationship between dose and cancer risk. The green solid line represents the natural cancer occurrence without the effects of radiation. Any dosage above the dotted line represents high dosage levels (100 mSv). Dosages below this have never been shown to have the linear relationship; the health response is almost certainly lower.]]		[[File:LinearNoThreshold.png\|thumb\|400px\|right\|upright=2.4\|alt=Figure 1:The LNT Model \|Figure 1: The LNT Model (red line) assumes a straight line relationship between dose and cancer risk. The green solid line represents the natural cancer occurrence without the effects of radiation. Any dosage above the dotted line represents high dosage levels (100 mSv). Dosages below this have never been shown to have the linear relationship; the health response is almost certainly lower.]]
	<onlyinclude>The '''Linear no-threshold model''' (LNT) is the most commonly used [[model]] to estimate the [[biological risk]]s from [[ionizing radiation]].</onlyinclude> While cancer is only one of the possible problems from radiation (others include acute radiation sickness)<ref>See for example BEIR VII, "Public summary" National Academies Press, 2006.</ref>, it's a common public health concern, and so will be the focus of this discussion. Eventually, [[Main Page\| Energy Education]] would like to have a reasonably full treatment of the [[biological effects of radiation]], but doesn't yet. An excellent summary is the [http://dels.nas.edu/resources/static-assets/materials-based-on-reports/reports-in-brief/beir_vii_final.pdf BEIR VII report].		<onlyinclude>The '''Linear no-threshold model''' (LNT) is the most commonly used [[model]] to estimate the [[biological risk]]s from [[ionizing radiation]].</onlyinclude> While cancer is only one of the possible problems from radiation (others include acute radiation sickness)<ref>See for example BEIR VII, "Public summary" National Academies Press, 2006.</ref>, it's a common public health concern, and so will be the focus of this discussion. Eventually, [[Main Page\| Energy Education]] would like to have a reasonably full treatment of the [[biological effects of radiation]], but doesn't yet. An excellent summary is the [http://dels.nas.edu/resources/static-assets/materials-based-on-reports/reports-in-brief/beir_vii_final.pdf BEIR VII report].

Jmdonev: 1 revision imported

2020-01-31T05:10:07Z

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Energy>Jmdonev at 21:03, 23 January 2020

2020-01-23T21:03:08Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:03, 23 January 2020
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	[[Category:Done ~~2015~~-01-15 ]]		[[Category:Done 2020-01-31]]
	[[File:LinearNoThreshold.png\|~~Left~~\|~~thumb~~\|alt=Figure 1:The LNT Model \|Figure 1: The LNT Model (red line) assumes a straight line relationship between dose and cancer risk. The green solid line represents the natural cancer occurrence without the effects of radiation. Any dosage above the dotted line represents high dosage levels (100 mSv). Dosages below this have never been shown to have the linear relationship; the health response is almost certainly lower.]]		[[File:LinearNoThreshold.png\|thumb\|400px\|right\|upright=2.4\|alt=Figure 1:The LNT Model \|Figure 1: The LNT Model (red line) assumes a straight line relationship between dose and cancer risk. The green solid line represents the natural cancer occurrence without the effects of radiation. Any dosage above the dotted line represents high dosage levels (100 mSv). Dosages below this have never been shown to have the linear relationship; the health response is almost certainly lower.]]
	<onlyinclude>The '''Linear no-threshold model''' (LNT) is ~~a way of predicting~~ the ~~maximum~~ [[biological risk]] from [[ionizing radiation]].</onlyinclude> While cancer is only one of the possible problems from radiation (others include [[acute radiation sickness]])<ref>See for example BEIR VII, "Public summary" National Academies Press, 2006.</ref>, it's a common concern, and so will be the focus of this discussion. Eventually, [[Main Page\| Energy Education]] would like to have a reasonably full treatment of the [[biological effects of radiation]], but doesn't yet.		<onlyinclude>The '''Linear no-threshold model''' (LNT) is the most commonly used [[model]] to estimate the [[biological risk]]s from [[ionizing radiation]].</onlyinclude> While cancer is only one of the possible problems from radiation (others include acute radiation sickness)<ref>See for example BEIR VII, "Public summary" National Academies Press, 2006.</ref>, it's a common public health concern, and so will be the focus of this discussion. Eventually, [[Main Page\| Energy Education]] would like to have a reasonably full treatment of the [[biological effects of radiation]], but doesn't yet. An excellent summary is the [http://dels.nas.edu/resources/static-assets/materials-based-on-reports/reports-in-brief/beir_vii_final.pdf BEIR VII report].

	The linear no-threshold model is based on biological responses at high radiation doses and dose rates. Of course, the higher the dose and dose rate, the higher the biological response; the lower the dose and dose rate, the lower the response. This model assumes the simplest possible relationship, a straight line~~. Data collection to confirm or deny this~~ model ~~in humans is quite difficult because people will (obviously) not willingly expose themselves to radiation at (or even close to levels that are known to be~~) ~~harmful levels. The assumptions of the LNT are used specifically to get around the problem of predicting radiation harm at levels where no data exist~~.		The linear no-threshold model is based on biological responses at high radiation doses and dose rates. Of course, the higher the dose and dose rate, the higher the biological response; the lower the dose and dose rate, the lower the response. This model assumes the simplest possible relationship, a straight line (hence '''linear''' no-threshold model).

	~~Another difficulty~~ with ~~determining the biological response comes from the time delay between when an organism is exposed~~ to ~~a carcinogen~~ (~~something that causes cancer, usually hazardous chemicals, but radiation can be carcinogenic~~) ~~and when the cancer develops. This period of time is called the latency period. This~~ is ~~particularly difficult with cancer specifically (as opposed to acute radiation sickness)~~, since ~~a large fraction of the population will develop cancer for other reasons than radiation; roughly 40% of~~ people ~~living their full lifespan will be diagnosed with cancer, but~~ not ~~everyone will die~~ of the ~~cancer, and many people won't live that long for other reasons.<ref>In order~~ to ~~estimate cancer risks for a population many factors must be taken into consideration; see~~ for example BEIR VII, "Chapter 12, Estimating Cancer Risks." National Academies Press, 2006.</ref> Many things cause cancer; different populations have different cancer risks, but radiation is probably very rarely the ~~cause~~ of ~~cancer~~.		Several difficulties exist with testing this [[model]]. Data collection to support or oppose this model (in humans) is challenging, since most people are not willing to expose themselves to harmful (or even close) levels of radiation. The LNT relies on assumptions to [[extrapolation\|extrapolate]] the biological harm at lower levels to make up for the lack of data.

	~~This model is primarily a policy model in order~~ to ~~set limits on~~ exposure to ~~radiation~~ and is ~~widely used.<ref name="ref1">Mohan Doss, "Linear No-Threshold Model vs Radiation Hormesis,"~~ ''~~International Dose-Response Society,~~'' ~~Vol~~. ~~11, pp. 496-512, 2013. Available: DOI: 10.2203/dose-response.13-005.Doss</ref> This model~~ is ~~deliberately conservative; it almost certainly overestimates~~ the ~~risk associated with~~ radiation exposure.		Another difficulty with determining the biological response to radiation comes from the time delay between exposure to a [[carcinogen]], and when the cancer actually develops. This time period is referred to as the '''[[latency period]]'''. Using the LNT to predict the risk of a person developing cancer is especially difficult (compared to acute radiation sickness) since a large percentage of the population will develop cancer for reasons other than radiation exposure, so a direct link between the two cannot be made.

	The data to make the LNT model came from Japanese survivor data from World War II. The bomb victims of Nagasaki and Hiroshima who received the highest amount of [[radiation]] exposure displayed an increased risk response.<ref>See for example BEIR VII, "Chapter 6, Atomic bomb survivor stud." National Academies Press, 2006.</ref> From this correlation, data were then extrapolated to the origin, assuming a linear no-threshold relationship between dosage and the risk of getting cancer. ~~Part~~ of ~~the difficulty~~ is that at low dose rates of radiation it is difficult to differentiate between natural background cancer rates and those caused by radiation.		Roughly 40% of people living their full lifespan will develop cancer. Many things cause cancer; genetics, environmental risks, and obesity being some examples. Different populations have different cancer risks, but radiation is likely very rarely the '''only''' cause of cancer. <ref>In order to estimate cancer risks for a population many factors must be taken into consideration; see for example BEIR VII, "Chapter 12, Estimating Cancer Risks." National Academies Press, 2006.</ref>

			Because of the limitations, this model is primarily a policy model in order to set limits on exposure to radiation and is widely used for this purpose.<ref name="ref1">Mohan Doss, "Linear No-Threshold Model vs Radiation Hormesis," ''International Dose-Response Society,'' Vol. 11, pp. 496-512, 2013. Available: DOI: 10.2203/dose-response.13-005.Doss</ref> This model is deliberately conservative; it almost certainly overestimates the risk associated with radiation exposure. A model is needed to make policy decisions and this model works sufficiently well that most relevant organizations around the world have adopted it.

			The data to make the LNT model came from Japanese survivor data from World War II. The bomb victims of Nagasaki and Hiroshima who received the highest amount of [[radiation]] exposure displayed an increased risk response.<ref>See for example BEIR VII, "Chapter 6, Atomic bomb survivor stud." National Academies Press, 2006.</ref> From this correlation, data were then extrapolated to the origin, assuming a linear no-threshold relationship between dosage and the risk of getting cancer. Yet another challenge of this is that at low dose rates of radiation, it is difficult to differentiate between natural background cancer rates and those caused by radiation.

	=LNT Assumptions=		=LNT Assumptions=
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	# Dosage is more important than dose rate.		# Dosage is more important than dose rate.

	As with most models, the assumptions ~~above~~ are ~~almost certainly not true~~, but the question becomes: are they good approximations for reality? If these assumptions are 'true enough,' then the LNT is a good scientific model; if the assumptions are inaccurate, then it's a poor scientific model.		As with most models, the assumptions are only approximations, but the question becomes: are they good approximations for reality? If these assumptions are 'true enough,' then the LNT is a good scientific model; if the assumptions are inaccurate, then it's a poor scientific model.

	In either case, because the model is primarily for setting public policy, the important point is that the model gives an overestimation of risk. Detractors from the LNT claim that this has made the public overly concerned about the biological effects of radiation, leading to unnecessary levels of panic in events like the [[Fukushima nuclear accident]]. Detractors of the model also point to the financial cost to making [[nuclear power]] very expensive and not actually saving human lives, an idea for which [[Main Page\|energy education]] will eventually have a page to explore in depth.		In either case, because the model is primarily for setting public policy, the important point is that the model gives an '''overestimation of risk'''. Detractors from the LNT claim that this has made the public overly concerned about the biological effects of radiation, leading to unnecessary levels of panic in events like the [[Fukushima nuclear accident]]. Detractors of the model also point to the financial cost to making [[nuclear power]] very expensive and not actually saving human lives, an idea for which [[Main Page\|energy education]] will eventually have a page to explore in depth.

	=Issues with the LNT model=		=Issues with the LNT model=

	One of the biggest arguments against the LNT model is that it does not consider human defense mechanisms. The human body produces enzymes that repair DNA damage with an efficiency of 99.99% for single stranded breaks and 90% for double stranded breaks<ref name="ref2"/>. Some studies have shown that apoptosis (~~when~~ cells ~~commit suicide~~) can be stimulated by low-level radiation. Radiation has also been shown to alter cell cycle timing, thereby increasing the time before the next cell division. (mitosis)<ref name="ref2"/> This gives a cell more time to notice the DNA damage and go into apoptosis before mitosis, ultimately preventing the cell from becoming cancerous. ~~Naturally the~~ human body suffers DNA damage via corrosive chemicals and thermal processes millions of times per day; however, only about one DNA damage per cell per day remains unrepaired.<ref name="ref2"/>		One of the biggest arguments against the LNT model is that it does not consider human defense mechanisms. The human body produces enzymes that repair DNA damage with an efficiency of 99.99% for single stranded breaks and 90% for double stranded breaks<ref name="ref2"/>. Some studies have shown that apoptosis (cellular death that occurs naturally within growth cycle of cells) can be stimulated by low-level radiation. Radiation has also been shown to alter cell cycle timing, thereby increasing the time before the next cell division (mitosis).<ref name="ref2"/> This gives a cell more time to notice the DNA damage and go into apoptosis before mitosis, ultimately preventing the cell from becoming cancerous, by eliminating the problem cell and preventing it from reproducing. The human body suffers DNA damage via corrosive chemicals and thermal processes millions of times per day; however, only about one DNA damage per cell per day remains unrepaired.<ref name="ref2"/>

	There are many models of biological response to radiation that show that the LNT model is unreasonable at low doses. One surprising model is [[radiation hormesis]], which ~~essentially~~ states that there are benefits from low-level ionizing radiation stimulation.<ref name="ref3">T. D. Luckey, "Radiation Hormesis: The Good, The Bad, And The Ugly," ''International Hormesis Society,''2006, pp. 4(3):169–190 Available: DOI: 10.2203/dose-response.06-102.Luckey.</ref> Other scientists have noticed that humans often have an [[adaptive phase response]]: low-level ionizing radiation seems to be able to condition cells to have better responses to higher amounts of radiation dose.<ref>See for example BEIR VII "Appendix D, Hormesis" National Academies Press, c2006.</ref> Some models assume a higher risk at lower dose rates (a super-linear model), but this model doesn't seem to mesh well with what's known about this biology, and the data aren't there to support this idea.		There are many models of biological response to radiation that show that the LNT model is unreasonable at low doses. One surprising model is [[radiation hormesis]], which states that there are benefits from low-level ionizing radiation stimulation.<ref name="ref3">T. D. Luckey, "Radiation Hormesis: The Good, The Bad, And The Ugly," ''International Hormesis Society,''2006, pp. 4(3):169–190 Available: DOI: 10.2203/dose-response.06-102.Luckey.</ref> Other scientists have noticed that humans often have an [[adaptive phase response]]: low-level ionizing radiation seems to be able to condition cells to have better responses to higher amounts of radiation dose.<ref>See for example BEIR VII "Appendix D, Hormesis" National Academies Press, c2006.</ref> Some models assume a higher risk at lower dose rates (a super-linear model), but this model doesn't seem to mesh well with what's known about this biology, and the data aren't there to support this idea.

	Biological effects of radiation remains an active area of research in the scientific community.		Biological effects of radiation remains an active area of research in the scientific community.

			==For Further Reading==
			*[[Ionizing radiation]]
			*[[Energy from nuclei]]
			*[[Strong nuclear force]]
			*[[Half life]]
			*Or explore a [[Special:Random\|random page]]


	=References=		=References=
	{{reflist}}		{{reflist}}
	[[Category:Uploaded]]		[[Category:Uploaded]]

Jmdonev: Fixed image

2017-04-01T23:46:54Z

Fixed image

← Older revision		Revision as of 23:46, 1 April 2017
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	[[Category:Done 2015-01-15 ]]		[[Category:Done 2015-01-15 ]]
	[[File:LinearNoThreshold.png\|Left\|~~upright=2.4~~\|alt=Figure 1:The LNT Model \|Figure 1: The LNT Model (red line) assumes a straight line relationship between dose and cancer risk. The green solid line represents the natural cancer occurrence without the effects of radiation. Any dosage above the dotted line represents high dosage levels (100 mSv). Dosages below this have never been shown to have the linear relationship; the health response is almost certainly lower.]]		[[File:LinearNoThreshold.png\|Left\|thumb\|alt=Figure 1:The LNT Model \|Figure 1: The LNT Model (red line) assumes a straight line relationship between dose and cancer risk. The green solid line represents the natural cancer occurrence without the effects of radiation. Any dosage above the dotted line represents high dosage levels (100 mSv). Dosages below this have never been shown to have the linear relationship; the health response is almost certainly lower.]]
	<onlyinclude>The '''Linear no-threshold model''' (LNT) is a way of predicting the maximum [[biological risk]] from [[ionizing radiation]].</onlyinclude> While cancer is only one of the possible problems from radiation (others include [[acute radiation sickness]])<ref>See for example BEIR VII, "Public summary" National Academies Press, 2006.</ref>, it's a common concern, and so will be the focus of this discussion. Eventually, [[Main Page\| Energy Education]] would like to have a reasonably full treatment of the [[biological effects of radiation]], but doesn't yet.		<onlyinclude>The '''Linear no-threshold model''' (LNT) is a way of predicting the maximum [[biological risk]] from [[ionizing radiation]].</onlyinclude> While cancer is only one of the possible problems from radiation (others include [[acute radiation sickness]])<ref>See for example BEIR VII, "Public summary" National Academies Press, 2006.</ref>, it's a common concern, and so will be the focus of this discussion. Eventually, [[Main Page\| Energy Education]] would like to have a reasonably full treatment of the [[biological effects of radiation]], but doesn't yet.

Jmdonev at 23:46, 1 April 2017

2017-04-01T23:46:24Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 23:46, 1 April 2017
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	[[Category:Done 2015-01-15 ]]		[[Category:Done 2015-01-15 ]]
	[[File:LinearNoThreshold.png~~\|thumb~~\|Left\|upright=2.4\|alt=Figure 1:The LNT Model \|Figure 1: The LNT Model (red line) assumes a straight line relationship between dose and cancer risk. The green solid line represents the natural cancer occurrence without the effects of radiation. Any dosage above the dotted line represents high dosage levels (100 mSv). Dosages below this have never been shown to have the linear relationship; the health response is almost certainly lower.]]		[[File:LinearNoThreshold.png\|Left\|upright=2.4\|alt=Figure 1:The LNT Model \|Figure 1: The LNT Model (red line) assumes a straight line relationship between dose and cancer risk. The green solid line represents the natural cancer occurrence without the effects of radiation. Any dosage above the dotted line represents high dosage levels (100 mSv). Dosages below this have never been shown to have the linear relationship; the health response is almost certainly lower.]]
	<onlyinclude>The '''Linear no-threshold model''' (LNT) is a way of predicting the maximum [[biological risk]] from [[ionizing radiation]].</onlyinclude> While cancer is only one of the possible problems from radiation (others include [[acute radiation sickness]])<ref>See for example BEIR VII, "Public summary" National Academies Press, 2006.</ref>, it's a common concern, and so will be the focus of this discussion. Eventually, [[Main Page\| Energy Education]] would like to have a reasonably full treatment of the [[biological effects of radiation]], but doesn't yet.		<onlyinclude>The '''Linear no-threshold model''' (LNT) is a way of predicting the maximum [[biological risk]] from [[ionizing radiation]].</onlyinclude> While cancer is only one of the possible problems from radiation (others include [[acute radiation sickness]])<ref>See for example BEIR VII, "Public summary" National Academies Press, 2006.</ref>, it's a common concern, and so will be the focus of this discussion. Eventually, [[Main Page\| Energy Education]] would like to have a reasonably full treatment of the [[biological effects of radiation]], but doesn't yet.

J.williams: 1 revision imported

2015-08-26T21:31:17Z

1 revision imported

← Older revision	Revision as of 21:31, 26 August 2015
(No difference)

J.williams at 16:56, 12 August 2015

2015-08-12T16:56:34Z

New page

[[Category:Done 2015-01-15 ]]
[[File:LinearNoThreshold.png|thumb|Left|upright=2.4|alt=Figure 1:The LNT Model |Figure 1: The LNT Model (red line) assumes a straight line relationship between dose and cancer risk. The green solid line represents the natural cancer occurrence without the effects of radiation. Any dosage above the dotted line represents high dosage levels (100 mSv). Dosages below this have never been shown to have the linear relationship; the health response is almost certainly lower.]]
<onlyinclude>The '''Linear no-threshold model''' (LNT) is a way of predicting the maximum [[biological risk]] from [[ionizing radiation]].</onlyinclude> While cancer is only one of the possible problems from radiation (others include [[acute radiation sickness]])<ref>See for example BEIR VII, "Public summary" National Academies Press, 2006.</ref>, it's a common concern, and so will be the focus of this discussion. Eventually, [[Main Page| Energy Education]] would like to have a reasonably full treatment of the [[biological effects of radiation]], but doesn't yet.

The linear no-threshold model is based on biological responses at high radiation doses and dose rates. Of course, the higher the dose and dose rate, the higher the biological response; the lower the dose and dose rate, the lower the response. This model assumes the simplest possible relationship, a straight line. Data collection to confirm or deny this model in humans is quite difficult because people will (obviously) not willingly expose themselves to radiation at (or even close to levels that are known to be) harmful levels. The assumptions of the LNT are used specifically to get around the problem of predicting radiation harm at levels where no data exist.

Another difficulty with determining the biological response comes from the time delay between when an organism is exposed to a carcinogen (something that causes cancer, usually hazardous chemicals, but radiation can be carcinogenic) and when the cancer develops. This period of time is called the latency period. This is particularly difficult with cancer specifically (as opposed to acute radiation sickness), since a large fraction of the population will develop cancer for other reasons than radiation; roughly 40% of people living their full lifespan will be diagnosed with cancer, but not everyone will die of the cancer, and many people won't live that long for other reasons.<ref>In order to estimate cancer risks for a population many factors must be taken into consideration; see for example BEIR VII, "Chapter 12, Estimating Cancer Risks." National Academies Press, 2006.</ref> Many things cause cancer; different populations have different cancer risks, but radiation is probably very rarely the cause of cancer.

This model is primarily a policy model in order to set limits on exposure to radiation and is widely used.<ref name="ref1">Mohan Doss, "Linear No-Threshold Model vs Radiation Hormesis," ''International Dose-Response Society,'' Vol. 11, pp. 496-512, 2013. Available: DOI: 10.2203/dose-response.13-005.Doss</ref> This model is deliberately conservative; it almost certainly overestimates the risk associated with radiation exposure.

The data to make the LNT model came from Japanese survivor data from World War II. The bomb victims of Nagasaki and Hiroshima who received the highest amount of [[radiation]] exposure displayed an increased risk response.<ref>See for example BEIR VII, "Chapter 6, Atomic bomb survivor stud." National Academies Press, 2006.</ref> From this correlation, data were then extrapolated to the origin, assuming a linear no-threshold relationship between dosage and the risk of getting cancer. Part of the difficulty is that at low dose rates of radiation it is difficult to differentiate between natural background cancer rates and those caused by radiation.

=LNT Assumptions=
The linear relationship that exists between cancer risk and dosage has the following assumptions:<ref name="ref2">Bernard L. Cohen, "Cancer Risk From Low-Level Radiation," ''American Roentgen Ray Society,'' Vol. 179, pp. 1137–1143, 2002.</ref> <br />

# A linear relationship exists between DNA double-stranded break and the probability of developing into a cancer.
# Cancer risk is linearly proportionate to dose.
# There is no threshold and risk is additive.
# Dosage outweighs any biological variables.
# Dosage is more important than dose rate.

As with most models, the assumptions above are almost certainly not true, but the question becomes: are they good approximations for reality? If these assumptions are 'true enough,' then the LNT is a good scientific model; if the assumptions are inaccurate, then it's a poor scientific model.

In either case, because the model is primarily for setting public policy, the important point is that the model gives an overestimation of risk. Detractors from the LNT claim that this has made the public overly concerned about the biological effects of radiation, leading to unnecessary levels of panic in events like the [[Fukushima nuclear accident]]. Detractors of the model also point to the financial cost to making [[nuclear power]] very expensive and not actually saving human lives, an idea for which [[Main Page|energy education]] will eventually have a page to explore in depth.

=Issues with the LNT model=

One of the biggest arguments against the LNT model is that it does not consider human defense mechanisms. The human body produces enzymes that repair DNA damage with an efficiency of 99.99% for single stranded breaks and 90% for double stranded breaks<ref name="ref2"/>. Some studies have shown that apoptosis (when cells commit suicide) can be stimulated by low-level radiation. Radiation has also been shown to alter cell cycle timing, thereby increasing the time before the next cell division. (mitosis)<ref name="ref2"/> This gives a cell more time to notice the DNA damage and go into apoptosis before mitosis, ultimately preventing the cell from becoming cancerous. Naturally the human body suffers DNA damage via corrosive chemicals and thermal processes millions of times per day; however, only about one DNA damage per cell per day remains unrepaired.<ref name="ref2"/>

There are many models of biological response to radiation that show that the LNT model is unreasonable at low doses. One surprising model is [[radiation hormesis]], which essentially states that there are benefits from low-level ionizing radiation stimulation.<ref name="ref3">T. D. Luckey, "Radiation Hormesis: The Good, The Bad, And The Ugly," ''International Hormesis Society,''2006, pp. 4(3):169–190 Available: DOI: 10.2203/dose-response.06-102.Luckey.</ref> Other scientists have noticed that humans often have an [[adaptive phase response]]: low-level ionizing radiation seems to be able to condition cells to have better responses to higher amounts of radiation dose.<ref>See for example BEIR VII "Appendix D, Hormesis" National Academies Press, c2006.</ref> Some models assume a higher risk at lower dose rates (a super-linear model), but this model doesn't seem to mesh well with what's known about this biology, and the data aren't there to support this idea.

Biological effects of radiation remains an active area of research in the scientific community.

=References=
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Uploaded]]