Spent nuclear fuel - Revision history

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Jmdonev at 16:48, 17 July 2018

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	[[Category:Done ~~2015~~-07-24]]		[[Category:Done 2018-07-20]]
	[[File:640px-Nuclear_waste_flask_train_at_Bristol_Temple_Meads_02.jpg\|360px\|thumb\|right\|Figure 1. One wagon of a nuclear waste flask train.<ref>Wikimedia Commons. (July 9, 2015). ''Nuclear Waste Flask'' [Online]. Available: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nuclear_waste_flask_train_at_Bristol_Temple_Meads_02.jpg#/media/File:Nuclear_waste_flask_train_at_Bristol_Temple_Meads_02.jpg</ref>]]		[[File:640px-Nuclear_waste_flask_train_at_Bristol_Temple_Meads_02.jpg\|360px\|thumb\|right\|Figure 1. One wagon of a nuclear waste flask train.<ref>Wikimedia Commons. (July 9, 2015). ''Nuclear Waste Flask'' [Online]. Available: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nuclear_waste_flask_train_at_Bristol_Temple_Meads_02.jpg#/media/File:Nuclear_waste_flask_train_at_Bristol_Temple_Meads_02.jpg</ref>]]

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	Spent fuel are the fuel bundles that can no longer sustain [[fission]] in a [[nuclear reactor]]. This happens because having [[fission daughter product]]s make it too hard to keep the [[nuclear chain reaction]] going. These products can be a result of [[fission]] or [[radioactive decay]]s that take place inside the fuel bundle.<ref name="RE1"/> Most of the waste is [[solid]], but some of the atoms in the spent fuel are [[gas\|gaseous]]. These isotopes require more careful containment so that they do not escape and cause [[radiation]] damage. The waste that comes from nuclear power reactors is known as '''[[high level waste]]''' or '''HLW''', but there is [[low level waste]] as well.<ref name="RE1"/>		Spent fuel are the fuel bundles that can no longer sustain [[fission]] in a [[nuclear reactor]]. This happens because having [[fission daughter product]]s make it too hard to keep the [[nuclear chain reaction]] going. These products can be a result of [[fission]] or [[radioactive decay]]s that take place inside the fuel bundle.<ref name="RE1"/> Most of the waste is [[solid]], but some of the atoms in the spent fuel are [[gas\|gaseous]]. These isotopes require more careful containment so that they do not escape and cause [[radiation]] damage. The waste that comes from nuclear power reactors is known as '''[[high level waste]]''' or '''HLW''', but there is [[low level waste]] as well.<ref name="RE1"/>

	The main concern about this spent fuel is that it is ~~dangerously~~ [[radioactive]], however this [[radioactivity]] is never out in the open and exposed to people (or the surrounding [[environment]])~~. These [[isotope]]s do, however, stay radioactive for a long time before decaying to stability~~. This radioactivity also results in the nuclear fuel emitting [[heat]] long after removal from the reactor because of the presence of short-lived fission products.<ref name="RE2">Jeff C. Bryan. ''Introduction to Nuclear Science'', 1st ed. Boca Raton, FL, U.S.A: CRC Press, 2009. </ref> This spent fuel is always shielded, generally by placing the fuel underwater until the radiation is minimized to levels where concrete can act as a shield. After this, there are a couple of disposal options for the spend fuel including storage in a [[deep geologic repository]] and [[nuclear fuel recycling]].		The main concern about this spent fuel is that it is [[radioactive]] (and stays radioactive for a long time before decaying to stability), however, this [[radioactivity]] is never out in the open and exposed to people (or the surrounding [[environment]]). This radioactivity also results in the nuclear fuel emitting [[heat]] long after removal from the reactor because of the presence of short-lived fission products.<ref name="RE2">Jeff C. Bryan. ''Introduction to Nuclear Science'', 1st ed. Boca Raton, FL, U.S.A: CRC Press, 2009. </ref> This spent fuel is always shielded, generally by placing the fuel underwater until the radiation is minimized to levels where concrete can act as a shield. After this, there are a couple of disposal options for the spend fuel including storage in a [[deep geologic repository]] and [[nuclear fuel recycling]].

	==Composition==		==Composition==
	Spent nuclear fuel varies in its composition. This composition depends ~~somewhat~~ on how long the fuel was in the ~~reactor but~~ a great deal on how long the waste has been out of the reactor. When [[uranium-235]] (the [[fissile]] isotope in nuclear fuel) is "burned" inside of a reactor, the percentage of the uranium-235 decreases. The other isotope of uranium, uranium-238 doesn't directly undergo much fission but needs an extra neutron before it can split with [[thermal neutron]]s (this is referred to as a [[fertile]] nucleus). Uranium-238 does become [[plutonium]], [[neptunium]], [[americium]], and [[curium]] in these spent fuel bundles.		Spent nuclear fuel varies in its composition. This composition somewhat depends on how long the fuel was in the reactor—but a great deal relies on how long the waste has been ''out of the reactor''. When [[uranium-235]] (the [[fissile]] isotope in nuclear fuel) is "burned" inside of a reactor, the percentage of the uranium-235 decreases. The other isotope of uranium, uranium-238 doesn't directly undergo much fission but needs an extra neutron before it can split with [[thermal neutron]]s (this is referred to as a [[fertile]] nucleus). Uranium-238 does become [[plutonium]], [[neptunium]], [[americium]], and [[curium]] in these spent fuel bundles.

	Spent fuel still has uranium-235, although the amount has fallen. For a [[light water]] reactor (like a [[PWR]] or [[BWR]]) the uranium-235 levels have fallen to about 1%. In [[CANDU reactor]]s it's even lower. About 95% of the spent fuel is still uranium-238, which can be used again. The other compounds that now exist in the fuel are heavy isotopes (plutonium, americium, neptunium and curium) and products of fission. Because uranium exists in this waste, ~~the uranium~~ can be used in fast reactors as a fuel. Some of the plutonium produced can even be used as fuel.		Spent fuel still has uranium-235, although the amount has fallen. For a [[light water]] reactor (like a [[PWR]] or [[BWR]]) the uranium-235 levels have fallen to about 1%. In [[CANDU reactor]]s it's even lower. About 95% of the spent fuel is still uranium-238, which can be used again. The other compounds that now exist in the fuel are heavy isotopes (plutonium, americium, neptunium and curium) and other products of fission. Because uranium exists in this waste, it can be used in [[fast breeder reactor\|fast reactors]] as a fuel. Some of the plutonium produced can even be used as fuel.

	Although there are thousands of tons of spent fuel, it is compact and uniform ~~- meaning~~ that regardless of what reactor the spent fuel came from it is similar in its ~~composition~~.<ref name="RE2"/> ~~This makes it relatively easy to manage this waste.~~		Although there are thousands of tons of spent fuel, it is compact and uniform. This means that regardless of what reactor the spent fuel came from it is similar in its composition— making it relatively easy to manage this waste.<ref name="RE2"/>

	==Storage and Recycling==		==Storage and Recycling==
	Spent fuel can be stored underwater in '''spent fuel pools''' near [[power plant]]s or be buried deep underground. These pools act both as a shield and a coolant for the fuel. Once cooled significantly, the rods are placed in dry cask storage. These casks allow for air-cooling of the rods, shielding, and are very sturdy.<ref name="RE2"/> When stored underground, surveying must be done to ensure that the area is geologically stable so that the waste is not disturbed.<ref name="RE1"/>		Spent fuel can be stored underwater in '''spent fuel pools''' near [[power plant]]s or be buried deep underground. These pools act both as a shield and a coolant for the fuel. Once cooled significantly, the rods are placed in a ''dry cask storage.'' These casks allow for air-cooling of the rods, shielding, and are very sturdy.<ref name="RE2"/> When stored underground, surveying must be done to ensure that the area is geologically stable so that the waste is not disturbed.<ref name="RE1"/>

	Spent fuel ~~still~~ contains large amounts of uranium ~~- much~~ of ~~this~~ usable fuel remains ~~after going through a reactor once~~.<ref name="RE1"/> This makes recycling this fuel possible, and the process of performing separations on the spent fuel to access this uranium and plutonium is known as ''reprocessing''.<ref name="RE2"/> It is important to note that reprocessing is much more expensive and difficult than [[uranium mining\|mining uranium]] and [[uranium enrichment\|enriching]] it. To recycle the waste, the spent fuel is chemically processed and used in ~~[[fast breeder reactor\|~~fast reactors]]. This results in less nuclear waste and more energy extracted from raw uranium. Currently, France and Japan recycle fuel one time before it is disposed, and the US previously had a recycling program that was shut down because it created plutonium. Plutonium is arguably the easiest material to make a nuclear weapon with, and thus its production is heavily monitored.<ref name="RE1"/>		Spent fuel contains large amounts of uranium, therefore, lots of usable fuel still remains.<ref name="RE1"/> This makes recycling this fuel possible, and the process of performing separations on the spent fuel to access this uranium and plutonium is known as ''reprocessing''.<ref name="RE2"/> It is important to note that reprocessing is much more expensive and difficult than [[uranium mining\|mining uranium]] and [[uranium enrichment\|enriching]] it. To recycle the waste, the spent fuel is chemically processed and used in fast reactors. This results in less nuclear waste and more energy extracted from raw uranium. Currently, France and Japan recycle fuel one time before it is disposed, and the US previously had a recycling program that was shut down because it created plutonium. Plutonium is arguably the easiest material to make a nuclear weapon with, and thus its production is heavily monitored.<ref name="RE1"/>

	Developing [[molten salt reactor]]s could allow for recycling and breeding without the production of plutonium or other actinides. Fission products are still created, but the reduction of these actinides is one major benefit of using molten salt reactors.<ref name="RE1"/>		Developing [[molten salt reactor]]s could allow for recycling and breeding without the production of plutonium or other actinides. Fission products are still created, but the reduction of these actinides is one major benefit of using molten salt reactors.<ref name="RE1"/>

			==For Further Reading==
			*[[Nuclear fuel]]
			*[[Nuclear reactor]]
			*[[Fission]]
			*[[Fission daughter product]]
			*[[Radioactive]]
			*[[Fast breeder reactor]]
			*Or explore a [[Special:Random\|random page]]

	==References==		==References==
	{{reflist}}		{{reflist}}
	[[Category:Uploaded]]		[[Category:Uploaded]]

J.williams: 1 revision imported

2015-08-26T21:31:40Z

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J.williams at 16:59, 12 August 2015

2015-08-12T16:59:05Z

New page

[[Category:Done 2015-07-24]]
[[File:640px-Nuclear_waste_flask_train_at_Bristol_Temple_Meads_02.jpg|360px|thumb|right|Figure 1. One wagon of a nuclear waste flask train.<ref>Wikimedia Commons. (July 9, 2015). ''Nuclear Waste Flask'' [Online]. Available: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nuclear_waste_flask_train_at_Bristol_Temple_Meads_02.jpg#/media/File:Nuclear_waste_flask_train_at_Bristol_Temple_Meads_02.jpg</ref>]]

<onlyinclude>After [[nuclear fuel]] goes through a [[nuclear reactor|reactor]] once, it is called '''spent fuel'''. This is a bit of a misnomer because there's still a fair amount of [[energy]] left in the [[fuel]].</onlyinclude><ref name="RE1">What is Nuclear? (July 9, 2015). ''Nuclear Waste'' [Online]. Available: http://www.whatisnuclear.com/articles/waste.html</ref> Visually, spent fuel looks the same as the fuel that goes into the reactor as it is contained in fuel assemblies containing ceramic [[fuel pellet]]s. However, the composition of the fuel pellets has changed a little; some of the [[uranium]] [[atom]]s within the fuel have split into smaller [[nucleus|nuclei]]. In current reactors only a very small fraction of the uranium has been split, which is why there's so much energy left in the fuel and it's not completely 'spent'.

Spent fuel are the fuel bundles that can no longer sustain [[fission]] in a [[nuclear reactor]]. This happens because having [[fission daughter product]]s make it too hard to keep the [[nuclear chain reaction]] going. These products can be a result of [[fission]] or [[radioactive decay]]s that take place inside the fuel bundle.<ref name="RE1"/> Most of the waste is [[solid]], but some of the atoms in the spent fuel are [[gas|gaseous]]. These isotopes require more careful containment so that they do not escape and cause [[radiation]] damage. The waste that comes from nuclear power reactors is known as '''[[high level waste]]''' or '''HLW''', but there is [[low level waste]] as well.<ref name="RE1"/>

The main concern about this spent fuel is that it is dangerously [[radioactive]], however this [[radioactivity]] is never out in the open and exposed to people (or the surrounding [[environment]]). These [[isotope]]s do, however, stay radioactive for a long time before decaying to stability. This radioactivity also results in the nuclear fuel emitting [[heat]] long after removal from the reactor because of the presence of short-lived fission products.<ref name="RE2">Jeff C. Bryan. ''Introduction to Nuclear Science'', 1st ed. Boca Raton, FL, U.S.A: CRC Press, 2009. </ref> This spent fuel is always shielded, generally by placing the fuel underwater until the radiation is minimized to levels where concrete can act as a shield. After this, there are a couple of disposal options for the spend fuel including storage in a [[deep geologic repository]] and [[nuclear fuel recycling]].

==Composition==
Spent nuclear fuel varies in its composition. This composition depends somewhat on how long the fuel was in the reactor but a great deal on how long the waste has been out of the reactor. When [[uranium-235]] (the [[fissile]] isotope in nuclear fuel) is "burned" inside of a reactor, the percentage of the uranium-235 decreases. The other isotope of uranium, uranium-238 doesn't directly undergo much fission but needs an extra neutron before it can split with [[thermal neutron]]s (this is referred to as a [[fertile]] nucleus). Uranium-238 does become [[plutonium]], [[neptunium]], [[americium]], and [[curium]] in these spent fuel bundles.

Spent fuel still has uranium-235, although the amount has fallen. For a [[light water]] reactor (like a [[PWR]] or [[BWR]]) the uranium-235 levels have fallen to about 1%. In [[CANDU reactor]]s it's even lower. About 95% of the spent fuel is still uranium-238, which can be used again. The other compounds that now exist in the fuel are heavy isotopes (plutonium, americium, neptunium and curium) and products of fission. Because uranium exists in this waste, the uranium can be used in fast reactors as a fuel. Some of the plutonium produced can even be used as fuel.

Although there are thousands of tons of spent fuel, it is compact and uniform - meaning that regardless of what reactor the spent fuel came from it is similar in its composition.<ref name="RE2"/> This makes it relatively easy to manage this waste.

==Storage and Recycling==
Spent fuel can be stored underwater in '''spent fuel pools''' near [[power plant]]s or be buried deep underground. These pools act both as a shield and a coolant for the fuel. Once cooled significantly, the rods are placed in dry cask storage. These casks allow for air-cooling of the rods, shielding, and are very sturdy.<ref name="RE2"/> When stored underground, surveying must be done to ensure that the area is geologically stable so that the waste is not disturbed.<ref name="RE1"/>

Spent fuel still contains large amounts of uranium - much of this usable fuel remains after going through a reactor once.<ref name="RE1"/> This makes recycling this fuel possible, and the process of performing separations on the spent fuel to access this uranium and plutonium is known as ''reprocessing''.<ref name="RE2"/> It is important to note that reprocessing is much more expensive and difficult than [[uranium mining|mining uranium]] and [[uranium enrichment|enriching]] it. To recycle the waste, the spent fuel is chemically processed and used in [[fast breeder reactor|fast reactors]]. This results in less nuclear waste and more energy extracted from raw uranium. Currently, France and Japan recycle fuel one time before it is disposed, and the US previously had a recycling program that was shut down because it created plutonium. Plutonium is arguably the easiest material to make a nuclear weapon with, and thus its production is heavily monitored.<ref name="RE1"/>

Developing [[molten salt reactor]]s could allow for recycling and breeding without the production of plutonium or other actinides. Fission products are still created, but the reduction of these actinides is one major benefit of using molten salt reactors.<ref name="RE1"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Uploaded]]